Thoughts Upon Slavery
by Jorge Castro-Correia

At some point in history, slavery has touched nearly every part of the world. As with most places, Madeiran slaves were mainly captured in Africa by more or less violent means. Warfare was the most common method, with the enemy usually being sold off into enslavement. The African societies that practiced slavery usually traded these slaves in the 15th century with the Portuguese and later with the Spanish, Dutch, French and the British.

The Portuguese were particularly keen to explore Africa; at the same time they had started up a colony in Madeira, and required labour to work on the much needed irrigation system, the levadas, which would water the recently introduced grain crops. The first slaves to arrive on Madeira were in 1452 and contrary to popular belief, were in fact the Moors, Berbers and the Guanches (natives from the Canary Islands). Nevertheless, by 1462 Pope Pius II declared that baptized Africans should not be enslaved. According to historical records, slaves to Madeira were mainly imported from Northern Africa. However, Tristão Vaz de Veiga, in 1582 (Governor General to the archipelago), had twelve Indian slaves in his possession and the most highly prized slaves on the island were the black slaves from Guinea who were valued for their robust constitution and strength. Their labour was, as already mentioned, initially used in the back breaking task of building the levadas. This vast network of channels transported the much needed water to all parts of the island to irrigate the valuable grain crops. The slaves were used to craft these channels out of the mountains, while hanging from baskets over the steep cliffs, many of whom lost their lives in the process. Nevertheless, by 1552, 3000 slaves could be found on the island. We are told by Count Guilio Landi, who visited Madeira in 1530, that the “trading for slaves called for great care because it was by no means sufficient to merely parade the slave back and forth. A careful physical examination had to be carried out to establish whether the body had any flaws, such as missing teeth, which could make the slave physically weaker than an healthy one still in possession of all his teeth.”

The tendency in Madeira was for the existence of a reduced number of slaves per landlord. The most slaves ever owned by any individual was 14 slaves belonging to João Esmeraldo. Unfortunately, by1485 famine broke out and the failing grain crops had to be replaced by the more profitable sugarcane production. Sugarcane had actually been introduced to Madeira in 1432 as a complimentary crop. There is still some controversy over the status of the Madeiran labourers used in the cultivation of sugar. Alberto Vieira, a highly respected expert in trans-Atlantic slavery, states that in Madeira “ the records show a high slave concentration in the urban areas revealing that we are faced with slavery of a domestic nature, with little or no relation to rural life.” However, records do also show that slaves were indeed used in the sugar mills. Jean Moquet in his 1601 journals states that he personally saw “a large number of slaves working on the sugar outside town”.

There is admittedly a pragmatic tendency to consider the effects of slavery in purely monetary terms. Slaves were also, however, sometimes used as spies as is in Damião, a slave belonging to Dona Branca de Atouguia, who upon the death of her first husband, began to rely on his intelligence and discretion. It is important to understand that slavery was not regarded by the Portuguese as necessarily a permanent condition. Slaves were for instance allowed to marry free spouses and become members of their slave master’s families. Freeborn women and male slaves frequently married, and their children were considered to be free. It is important to point out too that the Madeiran aristocracy at no point bred slaves or subjected them to the harsh regimented conditions found on slave plantations in Brazil, the West Indies or the rest of the Americas. Slave owners were only a small minority of the Madeiran population, and those who did own slaves owned only a few.

Most slaves were considered status symbols of prestige, luxury and power rather than a source of pure labour, so consequently a complimentary labour force. The treatment of slaves was also somewhat different due to the islands unique geographic conditions and limited land area. With the increased amount of slaves on the island by 1470 a law was created declaring that slaves seen on the streets after dark would be treated as fugitives. The rule equally applied even if the slave had been sent by their owners on important errands. Slaves were understandably also not allowed to bear arms or carry staffs. By 1473 slaves were furthermore legally forbidden from owning property and by 1481 it became compulsory for slaves to be visibly brandished on their chest or arm as public symbols of bondage. Having in mind the restrictions imposed by the by-laws to the circulation of the slaves after curfew, it seems difficult, if not impossible, to find a moment where the slaves would be in each other’s company and enjoy themselves with songs and dances.

Interestingly, if a slave were to run away they could be sold again by the person who managed to catch him. This rule only applied if the owner had failed to retrieve his slave within four months of his inicial escape. However, those slaves that struck their master or mistress could be put to death. The owners of slaves were also legally entitled to cut off one of the slave’s ears if he was disobedient or ran way; their hamstrings could legally be severed on the second attempt and they could legally be put to death on the third attempt. There is no record of this practice actually ever being carried out. However, records do show that in Calheta in 1505 João Rodrigues Castelhano had five of his slaves hung, for assassinating his farm manager.

Nevertheless, the treatment of slaves was in general very descent if compared with other places where slavery was to be found. Even so, slavery was not an open-and-shut case. Some slaves for instance even managed to achieve exalted status. Records show that Dona Branca de Atouguia appointed Damião her slave as manager of her estate. She also legally guaranteed the freedom of her slaves upon her death. The setting free of slaves after the death of their owners was customary on the island. She also organised for two of her slaves to be admitted to the convent of São Bernardino upon her death. Owners were also required to have their slaves baptised and instructed in the Catholic faith as were any children who were the fruit of slave/master relationships, who would then be accepted into Madeiran society. By 1505 Bishop D. Luis de Figueiredo ordered all local slave owners to ensure that slaves of both sexes who were ‘living in sin’ should get married. All the clergy in the Bishopric of Funchal were forbidden from keeping female slaves who were under the age of fifty.

By 1537 Pope Paul lll began to voice serious concerns about the condition in which the slaves were kept. However, the abolition of slavery in Madeira only occurred officially in November 1767 when a ship anchored off the port of Funchal, carrying a shipment of 300 slaves, was prohibited from off loading the slaves. With Slavery finally brought to an end the influence and existence of slavery on Madeira can still be seen today, visible in some of the street names like Rua da Mouraria (street in the Moorish quarter), or even Rua das Pretas (Street of the black women); visible too in its influence of Madeiran Portuguese food with its distinctive culinary heritage and diverse flavours, which includes the flavours of the African continent and Portugal. While the Portuguese were busy establishing a new society, they did not realize that the African slaves who worked for them brought with them their own vibrant and rich culture. A culture that would withstand and adapt to the harsh centuries of slavery. Slaves established their own cooking culture using foods that were similar to foods that were part of their African heritage, and many popular foods in the Madeiran diet are directly associated with foods in Africa. For instance, the Arabic Kebab has direct links with the traditional Madeiran Espetada; a local favourite in Madeiran homes is Milho , a type of polenta made from corn meal, which is a lasting culinary vestige of slavery, as is indeed couscous. The influence of slavery on today’s Madeiran cultural heritage can also be seen in the music and folk dancing. Many of these folk dances have become so typically Madeiran that it can be difficult to discern these influences, however, dancing in a circle while bowing your head has a distinctly African origin.

There is no doubt that the negative impact of slavery is countered by positive aspects in which slavery has enriched Madeira and added to its cultural heritage. This does not in any way condone slavery, nor does it explain this dark chapter in the history of Madeira.

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